The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway in the west, Finland in the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait in the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia in the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness.
Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden became part of the Kalmar Union together with Denmark and Norway (Finland at this time was a part of Sweden). Sweden left the union in the beginning of the 16th century, and more or less constantly battled its neighbours for many years, especially Russia and the still united Denmark-Norway, which never really accepted Sweden leaving the union. In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances.
Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption[1], until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.
Pre-history
Further information: Prehistoric Sweden
The Norse god Thor. Painting by Mårten Eskil Winge.
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The Norse god Thor. Painting by Mårten Eskil Winge.
Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age.
Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name (see Etymology of Sweden). The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years.
During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting their mark on the Baltic countries, Russia whose name comes from the Finnish name for these Vikings: Rus (the Finnish name for Sweden is Ruotsi), the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe. The Swedish Vikings were somewhat different from their Norwegian and Danish counterparts as they were not as warrior minded but instead were more merchant and settler minded.
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Middle ages
Further information: Early Swedish historyand Foundation of Modern Sweden
Gripsholm Castle outside Mariefred.
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Gripsholm Castle outside Mariefred.
With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect.
During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809.
In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation."
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A major power
The Swedish Empire in 1658 (orange) overlaid by present day Sweden (red)
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The Swedish Empire in 1658 (orange) overlaid by present day Sweden (red)
Further information: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, Swedish Empire, Sweden and the Great Northern War, Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, Sweden-Finland, and Union between Sweden and Norway
The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden.
After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. Norway had meanwhile declared itself independent and this led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814. It ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today.
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Modern history
Further information: Modernization of Sweden
The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Strong grassroots movements sprung up during the latter half of the 19th century (unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups). They were all based on democratic principles and built a strong base for Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialist unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.
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Recent history
Further information: Industrialization of Sweden
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed, as it made concessions to both sides during the war. (See further Sweden during World War II)
Following the war, Sweden took advantage of its natural resources and lack of war damage, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. This policy led to recession in the early 1990s, and some of the socialist policies were relaxed. Sweden, despite its officially neutral stance, joined the European Union in 1995, arguing that neutrality was less important in the post-Cold War world. However, in a 2003 consultative referendum, Swedish citizens declined to adopt the Euro.
As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s; however, it still ranks among the top nations in terms of standard of living.
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Geography
A map of Sweden with largest cities and lakes and most important roads and railroads, from a printed CIA World Factbook.
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A map of Sweden with largest cities and lakes and most important roads and railroads, from a printed CIA World Factbook.
View of Gamla Stan in Stockholm.
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View of Gamla Stan in Stockholm.
Image near Kebnekaise from Lappland in northern Norrland.
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Image near Kebnekaise from Lappland in northern Norrland.
Image from Göteborg archipelago in northern Götaland.
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Image from Göteborg archipelago in northern Götaland.
Image from Skåne in southern Götaland.
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Image from Skåne in southern Götaland.
An autumn image from Dalarna.
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An autumn image from Dalarna.
The Turning Torso skyscraper in Malmö, Skåne.
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The Turning Torso skyscraper in Malmö, Skåne.
Akalla outside Stockholm.
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Akalla outside Stockholm.
Main article: Geography of Sweden
Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly due to the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden leaf-bearing trees are prolific, in the north pines, spruces and hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period. The country is similar in size to the U.S. state of California, and has nearly the same population as the Californian city of Los Angeles.
East of Sweden lies the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate further yet. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain, a range that separates Sweden from Norway.
The southern part of the country is predominantly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region.
Gotland and Öland are the largest islands of Sweden.
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Counties
For more details on this topic, see Counties of Sweden.
Sweden is divided into 21 counties or län. They are Stockholm County, Uppland County, Södermanland County, Östergötland County, Jönköping County, Kronoberg County, Kalmar County, Gotland County, Blekinge County, Skåne County, Halland County, Västra Götaland County, Värmland County, Örebro County, Västmanland County, Dalarna County, Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County.
Each has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse which is appointed by the Government. In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into the 25 provinces and three lands. These divisions are still significant.
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Provinces
For provinces see:Provinces of Sweden
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Largest cities
Denotes inhabitants in the municipality (kommun) area. Area is in km². The figures are as of 2005.
Rank Municipality Population Land Area Density
1 Stockholm 765,044 187.74 4,075.02
2 Göteborg 481,410 450.71 1,068.11
3 Malmö 269,142 155.56 1,730.15
4 Uppsala 182,076 2,189.10 83.17
5 Linköping 136,912 1,435.80 95.36
6 Västerås 131,014 962.78 136.08
7 Örebro 126,982 1,380.11 92.01
8 Norrköping 124,410 1,503.61 82.74
9 Helsingborg 121,179 346.25 349.98
10 Jönköping 119,927 1,488.75 80.56
11 Umeå 110,705 2,331.39 46.92
12 Lund 101,423 430.27 235.72
13 Borås 98,886 915.22 108.05
14 Sundsvall 93,707 3,208.70 29.20
15 Gävle 92,081 1,615.07 57.01
Further information: List of municipalities of Sweden by population
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Demographics
For more details on this topic, see Demographics of Sweden.
An old house in the Södermalm district of Stockholm.
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An old house in the Södermalm district of Stockholm.
Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 August 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to Statistics Sweden. As of February, 2006, the population was 9,060,430. [2]
The country's population includes some 17,000 indigenous Sami. Some 50,000 of the ethnic Finns of Sweden also constitute an indigenous minority, although many more of the Sweden Finns descend from 20th century immigrants.
Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents are born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and then other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration.
Soviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovak liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a clear stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States of America. After the 1973 coup in Chile, and the following military dictatorships in Chile and other South American countries, political refugees came to dominate the image of immigration to Sweden, including refugees from Iran, Iraq and Palestine.
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Language
For more details on this topic, see Swedish language.
For more details on this topic, see Languages of Sweden.
Swedish is a Germanic language, related to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Sweden has no official language but the Swedish language holds a de facto status as such. The dominant language has always been Swedish and there has never been a political issue about making it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (being Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on April 1, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On December 7, 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, and with the count 147 to 145 the earlier position was settled, i.e. Swedish is not the official language according to law. It was, however, strengthened as the principal language in that same proposal.
Most Swedes, especially those under 60, are able to understand and speak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849 and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s [3]. Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject from first until ninth grade, and most students continuing in secondary school study English for a further three years. Most students also learn one or two additional languages; often German, French, or Spanish.
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Politics
Main article: Politics of Sweden
Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of two chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years.
The Riksdag in Stockholm
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The Riksdag in Stockholm
Inside the Riksdag
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Inside the Riksdag
Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.
Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties.
The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a leading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections (1976,1979 and 1991) have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product.
In January 2006, the following political parties held seats in the Riksdag (the most recent elections were held in September 2002; the next elections will be held in September 2006):
* Socialdemokraterna (s, Social Democrats): 144 seats, 39.8% of votes
* Moderaterna (m, Moderates): 55 seats, 15.2% of votes
* Folkpartiet liberalerna (fp, Liberal Party): 48 seats, 13.3% of votes
* Kristdemokraterna (kd, Christian Democrats): 33 seats, 9.1% of votes
* Vänsterpartiet (v, Left Party): 28 seats, 8.3% of votes
* Centerpartiet (c, Center Party): 22 seats, 6.1% of votes
* Miljöpartiet (mp, Greens): 17 seats, 4.6% of votes
(There are also 2 members of parliament who have left their respective parties during this term and are therefore not counted above.)
Some Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Anna Lindh, Joe Hill, Carl Skoglund, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme, Carl Bildt and Hans Blix.
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Energy politics
For more details on this topic, see Nuclear power phase-out#Sweden.
After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Sweden wants to be independent of petroleum use by 2020. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53 TWh and 40 per cent of the country's production of electricity with nuclear power delivering 65 TWh (49 per cent). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity[4].
In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [5]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [6]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.
Sweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020, although it is very unlikely that this will happen.
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Economy
The Swedish Krona, depicting King Carl XVI Gustav.
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The Swedish Krona, depicting King Carl XVI Gustav.
Main article: Economy of Sweden
The standard of living has become markedly high under Sweden's social democratic system. The economy features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade.
The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.3% in 2006, assuming a continued global recovery. Swedish unemployment figures are highly contested with the Socialdemocratic government claiming that the figure is 5.6% and the opposition claiming it is much higher. The official statistics on unemployment is 5.6% for 2004 these numbers do not however include unemployed people in government programs, people on extended sick-leave and people in different welfare programs. Unemployment is thought to be closer to 11% when using a system of measurement similar to that of other European nations and the United States. Sweden is known for having an even distribution of income, with a Gini coefficient at 0.21 in 2001 (one of the most even income distributions in the industrialized world).
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Welfare state
Further information: Social welfare in Sweden
Hjalmar Branting, the first social democratic Prime Minister of Sweden
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Hjalmar Branting, the first social democratic Prime Minister of Sweden
What is known as the Scandinavian model is usually described as a middle way between socialism and capitalism and is regarded by its proponents as the most developed form of capitalism.
The state provides for tax-funded childcare, parental leave, a ceiling on health care costs, free education (all levels up to, and including university), retirement pensions, free dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly paid by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with two so called "daddy-months". In addition, the ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons.
The Swedish welfare system remains generous, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralisation of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. [7]
The welfare state requires high taxes, but the population is generally affirmative of this. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20-25% that kicks in when you earn more than about 300 000 SEK. The employing company pays an additional 32% of so called Employers fee. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens except food (12% VAT) and transports and books (6% VAT). Certain items are taxed at higher rates, e.g. petrol/diesel, new cars and alcoholic beverages.
The high rates of income taxation in combination with very influential labour unions have kept differences in income at a minimum, resulting in little reward for individuals going through higher education as compared to individuals who start working for a living at an earlier age.
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Education
Main article: Education in Sweden
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility. Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three year upper secondary school leading sometimes to a vocational diploma and always to the qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (högskola).
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Culture
A typical 19th, early 20th century summer cottage (stuga) in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red.
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A typical 19th, early 20th century summer cottage (stuga) in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red.
Main article: Culture of Sweden
Swedish authors of worldwide recognition include Henning Mankell, Carolus Linnaeus (the father of botany), Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerlöf, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren, the author of the beloved Pippi Longstocking books.
Sweden's most well-known artists are painters Carl Larsson, Anders Zorn, and Alexander Roslin, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.
Many well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and modern, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas Ångström, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, Håkan Lans.
Swedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Ingrid Bergman, Ann-Margret, Lena Olin, Zarah Leander, and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. The actor Max von Sydow is also worth mentioning. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition.
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Music
Further information: Music of Sweden
Ebba Grön, early Swedish punk band
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Ebba Grön, early Swedish punk band
The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had great success abroad. Björling is considered by many to be the epitome of a great tenor. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson, Birgit Nilsson, and tenor Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter are worth mentioning.
Some of the most successful Swedish popular music artists are ABBA, In Flames, Europe, HammerFall, Roxette, Gyllene Tider, Ace of Base, Army of Lovers, The Cardigans and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent years, including Dungen, Blindside, Clawfinger, Magnus Uggla, The Sounds, The Hives, Refused, Millencolin, The (International) Noise Conspiracy, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, The Soundtrack of Our Lives, Silverbullit, Kent, Infinite Mass, A*Teens, Mando Diao and Looptroop. In underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of death metal and black metal acts such as Bathory, Meshuggah, The Haunted, Therion, Cemetary, Amon Amarth, Opeth, Naglfar, Arch Enemy, Nightrage, Dark Tranquillity, Entombed, Dissection, At The Gates, Hypocrisy, Grave, Candlemass, Dismember, Marduk, Unleashed and Soilwork, as well as Progressive bands like The Flower Kings, Evergrey and Pain of Salvation. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound. More recently, the so-called Swedish House Mafia including Steve Angello, Sebastian Ingrosso, Axwell, and Eric Prydz have topped the house music charts and DJ top 10s around the world. There is also a well known Swedish punk band called Ebba Grön and in the synth world, S.P.O.C.K is still going strong after 18 years.
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Media
For more details on this topic, see Media in Sweden.
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (centrist), Göteborgs-Posten (centrist), Svenska Dagbladet (conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (earlier left-wing, now centrist) and Expressen (centrist).
The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by The Local.
For many years Swedish television consisted solely of the two channels broadcast by the public service company Sveriges Television, which, as in most other European countries, is financed through a radio and TV license. But in 1987 the first commercial Scandinavian channel, TV3, started transmitting from London, and today there are five free-to-air channels in the terrestrial network, which is currentlly is switching from analogue to digital, However, most Swedes have access to numerous other free and pay channels as well, through cable or satellite TV.
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Holidays
For more details on this topic, see Holidays in Sweden.
Midsummer's Eve, painting by Anders Zorn
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Midsummer's Eve, painting by Anders Zorn
Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on April 30 lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1st is dedicated to Socialistic demonstrations; and December 13th, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. June 6 is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish parties). More regional variants are the surströmming parties in Northern Sweden (surströmming is a type of fermented fish), and ålegillar (eel parties) in Skåne. The Sami, Sweden's indigenous minority, have their holiday on February 6th.
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Cuisine
Main article: Swedish cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Fish, meat and potatoes play prominent roles. Spices are sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish meatballs (köttbullar—traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam), plättar (Swedish pancakes, served with jam) lutfisk, the smörgås (open-faced sandwich), and the famous 'Smörgåsbord'.
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Sports
Main article: Sport in Sweden
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating. The two main spectator sports are football (soccer) and ice hockey. Some notable Swedish football stars include Zlatan Ibrahimovic, Henrik Larsson and Fredrik Ljungberg. Swedish hockey players have often been regarded as some of the best in their sport. Famous Swedish hockey players include: Bengt Gustafsson, Håkan Loob, Peter Forsberg, Markus Näslund, Mats Sundin, Daniel Alfredsson, Nicklas Lidström, Tomas Holmström, Daniel Sedin, Henrik Sedin, Börje Salming, Mattias Norström, Tomas Sandström, Pelle Lindbergh and Henrik Lundqvist.
Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Thereafter follow golf, track and field, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and in northern parts bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are also practised but have no widespread popularity.
Successful tennis players include former world No. 1's Björn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg; in skiing sports, Ingemar Stenmark, Pernilla Wiberg and Anja Pärson have all had dominating periods in alpine skiing, as have Sixten Jernberg, Gunde Svan, Per Elofsson and Thomas Wassberg in cross country skiing. In ski jumping, Jan Boklöv revolutionised the sport with his new technique, the V-style.
A number of Swedes have been internationally successful in athletics. In the 1940s runner Gunder Hägg dominated middle distance. In recent years, stars include high jumpers such as the European record holder Patrik Sjöberg, Kajsa Bergqvist, and Athens Olympic gold medallist Stefan Holm. Two other Swedish athletes won gold medals in the 2004 Olympic Games: heptathlete Carolina Klüft and triple jumper Christian Olsson.
Other famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion Ingemar Johansson, golfer Annika Sörenstam, former five times World table tennis Champion Jan-Ove Waldner and the World Speedway Champion Tony Rickardsson.
In schools, on meadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb and boules among the older generation.
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Religion
Main article: Church of Sweden
Before the 11th century, people of Sweden adhered to Norse religion, worshipping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianisation in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities.
After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s the Church and State were united, abolishing the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops, and in the long run allowing only Lutheranism to prevail. This was not a process completed until the Uppsala Synod 1593. During the era following the Reformation period, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, in the 17th century, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen and Walloons who played a significant role in trade and industry, were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Not until liberalisation in the late 18th century, believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Catholicism, were allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, although it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw other Christian denominations, such as the Episcopal Church; and towards the end of the century secularism began attracting attention, leading people to distance themselves from Church rituals such as baptism. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 78% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decreasing by about one percent every year, and church services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population)[8]. Also of significance are the 200,000 to 400,000 Muslims in Sweden.[9].
According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005 [10], only 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". This, according to the survey, would make Swedes the third least religious people in the 25-member European Union.
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International rankings
* Sweden Summary Amnesty Report 2005
* CIA World Factbook - GDP - PPP per capita
o 2004: 26th of 232 countries [11]
* Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers (2004) Report (PDF file)
o Mothers' index rank: 1st of 119 countries
o Women's index rank: 1st of 119 countries
o Children's index rank: 10th of 119 countries
o Infant mortality rate: lowest
o % women with seats in the national government: 50% (highest)
* UN Human Development Index (2004)
o 2nd of 177 countries
* World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report [12] (2004)
o 3rd of 104 countries
Italy, officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Italia, IPA: /i'talja/ or Repubblica Italiana, IPA: /re'pubblika ita'ljana/), is a country in Southern Europe. It comprises the Italian peninsula, the Po River valley, and two large islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia, and shares its northern alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The country also shares a sea border with Croatia. The independent countries of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italian territory.
For more than 3,000 years Italy witnessed many migrations and invasions from Germanic, Celtic, Frankish, Byzantine Greek, Saracen, Norman, and the French Angevin, and Lombard peoples. Italy was also home to many well-known and influential civilisations, including the Etruscans, Greeks and the Romans.
Italy is called Belpaese (Italian for beautiful country) by its inhabitants, due to the beauty and variety of its landscapes and for having the world's largest artistic patrimony; the country is home to the greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (40 as of January 1, 2006).
Presently, Italy is a highly developed country with the 6th highest GDP in 2004, a member of the G8 and a founding member of what is now the European Union, having signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957.
Inhabitants of Italy are referred to as Italians (Italian: Italiani). There are several theories concerning the origin of the name "Italia", but the most widely accepted etymology is that it is derived from the ancient Greek word italos (bull).
History
Main article: History of Italy
The word Italy derives from the homeric (aeolian) word ιταλός [1], which means bull. Excavations throughout Italy have found proof of life in Italy dating back to the Palaeolithic period (the "Old Stone Age") some 200,000 years ago. The first Greek settlers, which arrived in Italy from Euboea island the 8th century BC, possibly named their new land "land of bulls".
Italy has influenced the cultural and social development of the whole Mediterranean area, deeply influencing European culture as well. This has in result influenced other important cultures as well. Important cultures and civilisations have existed there since prehistoric times. After Magna Graecia, the Etruscan civilisation and especially the Roman Republic and Empire that dominated this part of the world for many centuries, Italy was central to European science and art during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Modern Italy became a nation-state belatedly — on March 17, 1861, when most of the states of the peninsula were united under king Victor Emmanuel II of the Savoy dynasty, which ruled over Sardinia and Piedmont. The architects of Italian unification were Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, a general and national hero. Rome itself remained for a little less than a decade under the Papacy, and became part of the Kingdom of Italy only on September 20, 1870. The Vatican is now an independent enclave surrounded by Rome.
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Politics
Main article: Politics of Italy
Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of the Italian Republic since 1999.
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Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of the Italian Republic since 1999.
The 1948 Constitution of Italy established a bicameral parliament (Parlamento), consisting of a Chamber of Deputies (Camera dei Deputati) and a Senate (Senato della Repubblica), a separate judiciary, and an executive branch composed of a Council of Ministers (cabinet) (Consiglio dei ministri), headed by the prime minister (Presidente del consiglio dei ministri).
The President of the Republic (Presidente della Repubblica) is elected for seven years by the parliament sitting jointly with a small number of regional delegates. The president nominates the prime minister, who proposes the other ministers (formally named by the president). The Council of Ministers must retain the support (fiducia) of both houses.
The houses of parliament are popularly and directly elected through a proportional representation system. The Chamber of Deputies has officially 630 members (de facto, 619 only after the 2001 elections). In addition to 315 senators, elected members, the Senate includes former presidents and several other persons (no more than five) appointed for life by the President of the Republic according to special constitutional provisions. Both houses are elected for a maximum of five years, but both may be dissolved before the expiration of their normal term. Legislative bills may originate in either house and must be passed by a majority in both. The Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. A constitutional court, the Corte Costituzionale, passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-World War II innovation.
All Italian citizens older than 18 can vote. To vote for the senate, the voter must be at least 25.
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Regions
Main article: Regions of Italy
Map of Italy
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Map of Italy
Italy is subdivided into 20 regions (regioni, singular regione). Five of these regions enjoy a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their specific local matters, and are marked by an *:
* Abruzzo (with capital L'Aquila)
* Aosta Valley*, Valle d'Aosta / Vallée d'Aoste (Aosta)
* Apulia, Puglia (Bari)
* Basilicata (Potenza)
* Calabria (Catanzaro)
* Campania (Naples, Napoli)
* Emilia-Romagna (Bologna)
* Friuli-Venezia Giulia* (Trieste)
* Latium, Lazio (Rome, Roma)
* Liguria (Genoa, Genova)
* Lombardy Lombardia (Milan, Milano)
* Marche (Ancona)
* Molise (Campobasso)
* Piedmont, Piemonte (Turin, Torino)
* Sardinia*, Sardegna (Cagliari)
* Sicily*, Sicilia (Palermo)
* Trentino-South Tyrol*, Trentino-Alto Adige / Südtirol (Trento, Bozen-Bolzano)
* Tuscany, Toscana (Florence Firenze)
* Umbria (Perugia)
* Veneto (Venice, Venezia)
All regions except the Aosta Valley are further subdivided into two or more provinces.
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Geography
Main article: Geography of Italy
Italy consists predominantly of a large peninsula (the Italian peninsula) with a distinctive boot shape that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, where together with its two main islands Sicily and Sardinia it creates distinct bodies of water, such as the Adriatic Sea to the north-east, the Ionian Sea to the south-east, the Tyrrhenian Sea to the south-west and finally the Ligurian Sea to the north-west.
The Apennine mountains form the backbone of this peninsula, leading north-west to where they join the Alps, the mountain range that then forms an arc enclosing Italy from the north. Here is also found a large alluvial plain, the Po-Venetian plain, drained by the Po River — which is Italy's biggest river — and its many tributaries flowing down from the Alps, Apennines and Dolomites.
Other well-known rivers include the Tiber, Adige and Arno.
Its highest point is Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco) at 4,890 metres (15,781 feet), but Italy is more typically associated with two famous volcanoes: the currently dormant Vesuvius near Naples and the very active Etna on Sicily.
Sicily and Sardinia are the two major islands of Italy (comprehensive list).
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Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Italy
Italy is largely homogeneous in language and religion but is diverse culturally, economically, and politically. The country has the fifth-highest population density in Europe at 193 persons per square kilometre (499/sq. mi). Indigenous minority groups are small. For a country of 58.4 million people, Italy has a smaller number of migrants compared to France and Germany.
Since the beginning of Roman civilisation, important ethnic groups like Greek settlers, Germanic and Celtic invaders and plunderers, and Norman colonisers have all left important impressions on the people today. However, they have all been absorbed in a homogeneous Italian ethnic group.
The number of immigrants or foreign residents in Italy have steadily increased to reach 2,402,157, according to the latest figures (1/2005) of ISTAT. They currently make up a little more than 4 % of the official total population. According to these statistics, the largest foreign minorities are Albanians (316,659), Moroccan (294,945), Romanian (248,8491), Chinese (111,712), and Ukrainian (93,441). Remaining groups include those who are Tunisian, Macedonians, Serbians, Filipinos, etc.
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Religion
Roman Catholicism is by far the most popular religion in the country. According to estimates by (CIA World Fact Book 2005, Italian polls, Adherents.com, BBCNews and others), it is safe to conclude that 87% of the Italian population self-identify as Roman Catholic, whereas around 13% identify with either other religions or none at all. Italy also has some important pilgrimages and famous Roman Catholic churches, cathedrals and sites. According to many other books (Reference) surveys (from Gallup and others) Italy can claim above 40% weekly church attendance rate.
Around 30,000 Jews, and 30,000 Buddhists live in Italy.
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Economy
Main article: Economy of Italy
A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it ranked as the sixth- largest economy in the world in 2004, behind the United States, Japan, Germany, UK, and France. According to the OECD, in 2004 Italy was the world's sixth-largest exporter of manufactured goods. This capitalistic economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed agricultural south (with 20% unemployment).
Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. Over the past decade, Italy has pursued a tight fiscal policy in order to meet the requirements of the Economic and Monetary Union and has benefited from lower interest and inflation rates. Italy joined the Euro from its conception in 1999.
Italy's economic performance has at times lagged behind that of its EU partners, and the current government has enacted numerous short-term reforms aimed at improving competitiveness and long-term growth. It has moved slowly, however, on implementing certain structural reforms favoured by economists, such as lightening the high tax burden and overhauling Italy's rigid labour market and expensive pension system, because of the current economic slowdown and opposition from labour unions.
* List of Italian companies
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Culture
See the separate article: Culture of Italy.
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Languages
Main article: Languages of Italy
The official language of Italy is Standard Italian , a direct descendant of Latin. (Some 75% of Italian words are of Latin origin.) However, when Italy was unified, in 1861, Italian existed mainly as a literary language, and was spoken by less than 3% of the population. Different languages were spoken throughout Italian peninsula, many of which were Romance languages which had developed in every region, due to political fragmentation of Italy2. Indeed, each historical region of Italy had its own so-called ‘dialect’ (with ‘dialect’ usually meaning, improperly, a non-Italian Romance language), with variants existing at the township-level.
Venice
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Venice
Massimo d'Azeglio, one of Cavour's ministers, is said to have stated, following Italian unification, that having created Italy, all that remained was to create Italians. Given the high number of languages spoken throughout the peninsula, it was quickly established that 'proper' or 'standard' Italian would be based on the Florentine dialect spoken in most of Tuscany (given that it was the first region to produce authors such as Dante Alighieri, who between 1308 and 1321 wrote the Divina Commedia). A national education system was established - leading to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken throughout the country over time. But was not until the 1960s, when economic growth enabled widespread access to the television programmes of the state television broadcaster, RAI, that Italian truly became broadly-known and quite standardised.
Today, despite regional variations in the form of accents and vowel emphasis, Italian is fully comprehensible to all throughout the country. Nevertheless certain dialects have become cherished beacons of regional variation—the Neapolitan dialect which is extensively used for the singing of popular folk-songs, for instance—and in recent years many people have developed a particular pride in their dialects.
In addition to the various regional variations and dialects of standard Italian, a number of truly separate languages are spoken:
* In the north, the province of South Tyrol (Südtirol in German, Alto Adige in Italian) is almost entirely German-speaking; the area was awarded to Italy following the First World War and her defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Pockets of German speakers also persist in other north-eastern Italian regions - a remnant of the old Austrian influence on this area of Italy. In total some 300,000 or so Italians speak German as their first language and indeed identify themselves as ethnic Austrians.
* Some 120,000 or so people live in the Aosta Valley region, where a dialect of Franco-Provençal is spoken that is similar to patois dialects spoken in France. About 1,400 people living in two isolated towns in Foggia speak another dialect of Franco-Provençal.
* About 80,000 Slovene-speakers live in the north-eastern region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia near the border with Slovenia.
* In the Dolomite mountains of Trentino-South Tyrol and Veneto there are some 400,000 speakers of the Rhaetian language Ladin. A very large community of some 700,000 people in Friuli speak Friulian - another Rhaetian language.
* In the Molise region of central-south Italy some 4,000 people speak Serbo-Croatian. These are the Molise Croats, descendants of a group of people who migrated from the Balkans in the Middle Ages.
* Scattered across southern Italy (Salento and Calabria) are a number of some 30,000 Greek-speakers - considered to be the last surviving traces of the region's Greek heritage. (Ancient Greek colonists reached southern Italy and Sicily about 1500 BC.) They speak a Greek dialect, Griko.
* Some 15,000 Catalan speakers reside around the area of Alghero in the north-west corner of Sardinia - believed to be the result of a migration of a large group of Catalans from Barcelona in ages past.
* The Arbëreshë, of whom there are around 100,000 in southern Italy and in central Sicily—the result of past migrations—are speakers of the Arbëresh dialect of Albanian.
* Finally, the largest group of non-Italian speakers, some 1.6 million people, are those who speak Sardinian, a Romance language which retains many pre-Latin words.
Germany
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Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Federal Republic of Germany
Flag of Germany Coat of arms of Germany
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit
(German: "Unity and Justice and Freedom" )
Anthem: The third stanza of "Das Lied der Deutschen"
Location of Germany
Capital Berlin
52°31′N 13°24′E
Largest city Berlin
Official language(s) German 1
Government
• President
• Chancellor
• Vice Chancellor
Federal Republic
Horst Köhler
Angela Merkel (CDU)
Franz Müntefering (SPD)
Formation
Holy Roman Empire
German Empire
Federal Republic
Reunification
843 (Treaty of Verdun)
January 18, 1871
May 23, 1949
October 3, 1990
Area
- Total
- Water (%)
357,050 km² (63rd)
137,858 sq mi
2.416
Population
- 2006 est.
- 2000 census
- Density
82,422,299 (14th)
N/A
231.1/km² (34th)
598.5/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
- Total
- Per capita 2006 estimate
$2.609 trillion (5th)
$31,472 (17th)
HDI (2003) 0.930 (20th) – high
Currency Euro (€) 2 (EUR)
Time zone
- Summer (DST) CET (UTC+1)
CEST (UTC+2)
Internet TLD .de www.deutschland.de
Calling code +49
1 Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany and Frisian are officially recognised and protected as minority languages by the ECRML. 2 Prior to 2002: Deutsche Mark
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°24′E The Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, listen (help·info)), or simply Germany, is one of the world's leading industrialised countries. Located in Central Europe, it is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea, to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic, to the south by Austria and Switzerland, and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands.
Germany is a democratic parliamentary federal republic, made up of 16 states called Länder, which in certain spheres act independently of the federation. Historically consisting of several sovereign nations with their own history, culture as well as religion, Germany was unified as a nation state during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870/1871.
Restoration and revolution (1814–1871)
The way of the students to Wartburg 1817
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The way of the students to Wartburg 1817
Frankfurt Parliament in 1848/49
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Frankfurt Parliament in 1848/49
Main article: German Confederation
Following Napoleon's fall and the end of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Congress of Vienna convened in 1814 in order to restructure Europe. In Germany, the German Confederation was founded, a loose league of 39 sovereign states. Disagreement with the restoration politics partly led to the lifestyle called Biedermeier and to intellectual liberal movements, which demanded unity and freedom during the Vormärz epoch, each followed by a measure of Metternich's repression of liberal agitation. The Zollverein, a tariff union, profoundly furthered economic unity in the German states.
The German people had been stirred by the ideals of the French revolution. On October 18, 1817, students held a gathering to exchange ideas, the high point of which was the burning of works by authors like Otto of Kotzebue, who were against a united German state. A second such meeting attracted 30,000 people from all social classes and from all regions to the Hambacher celebration. There for the first time, the colours of black, red and gold were chosen to represent the movement, which later became the national colours.
The states were also shaped by the Industrial Revolution, which was the initial step of the growing industrialisation in Europe and contributed to a wave of poverty, causing social uprisings. In light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which in France successfully established a republic, intellectuals and common people started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. The monarchs initially yielded to the revolutionaries' liberal demands, and an intellectual National Assembly was elected to draw up a constitution for the new Germany, completed in 1849. However, the Prussian king Frederick William IV, who was offered the title of Emperor but with a loss of power, rejected the crown and the constitution. This prompted the demise of the national assembly along with most of the changes from the revolution.
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German Empire (1871–1918)
Foundation of modern Germany, Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is in white in the middle
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Foundation of modern Germany, Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is in white in the middle
Main article: German Empire
In 1862, conflict between the Prussian King Wilhelm I and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms. The king appointed Otto von Bismarck the new Prime Minister of Prussia. Bismarck solved the conflict with difficulty and used the desire for national unification to further the interests of the Prussian monarchy. In 1864 he successfully waged war on Denmark. Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation and divide Austria, formerly the leading state of Germany, from the more western and northern parts.
After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich) was proclaimed in Versailles on January 18, 1871. As a result, the new empire was a unification of all the scattered parts of Germany but without Austria—Kleindeutschland. After 1888, the Year of Three Emperors, Bismarck was forced by the new emperor, young Wilhelm II, to quit in 1890 due to political and personal differences. Beginning in 1884 Germany established several colonies. The young emperor's foreign policy was opposed to that of Bismarck, who had established a system of alliances in the era called Gründerzeit, securing Germany's position as a great nation and avoiding war for decades. Under Wilhelm II, however, Germany took an imperialistic course, not unlike other powers, but it led to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had been previously involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country. Austria and Germany became increasingly isolated.
Although not one of the main causes, the assassination of Austria's crown prince triggered World War I on July 28, 1914, which saw Germany as part of the unsuccessful Central Powers in the second-bloodiest conflict of all time against the Allied Powers. In November 1918, the second German Revolution broke out, and Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. An armistice was signed on November 11, putting an end to the war. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, whose unexpectedly high demands were perceived as humiliating in Germany and as a continuation of the war by other means.
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Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
Main article: Weimar Republic
After the German Revolution in November 1918, a Republic was proclaimed. That year, the German Communist Party was established by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, and in January 1919 the German Workers Party, later known as the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party, NSDAP, "Nazis"). On August 11, 1919, the Weimar Constitution came into effect. 1920s Berlin was a vibrant and exciting city that flourished with the activity of artists, intellectuals and scientists, some of them Jews, during the Weimar Republic; many considered it to be the cultural capital of the world during this time.
In a climate of economic hardship due to both the world wide Great Depression and the harsh peace conditions dictated by the Treaty of Versailles, and growing tired with a long succession of more or less unstable governments and continuous coalition changes, the political masses in Germany increasingly lacked identification with their political system of parliamentary democracy. This was exacerbated by a wide-spread right-wing (monarchist, völkische, and Nazi) Dolchstoßlegende, a political myth which claimed the German Revolution was the main reason why Germany had lost the war, decried the Revolutionists as traitors (Novemberverbrecher = November criminals) and the political system born of the Revolution as illegitimate. On the other hand, radical left-wing communists such as the Spartacist League had wanted to abolish what they perceived as a "capitalist rule" in favour of a "Räterepublik" and were thus also in opposition to the existing form of government.
During the years following the Revolution, German voters increasingly supported anti-democratic parties, both right- (monarchists, Nazis) and left-wing (Communists). In the two extraordinary elections of 1932, the Nazis achieved 37.2% and 33.0%, while the Communists achieved 17% in the latter election - half of the parliament were actually anti-democratic, not including smaller parties with questionable credentials in this respect. As a result, democratic moderate parties like the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) were left with a minority.
At the beginning of the 1930s, Germany was not far from a civil war. Paramilitary troops, which were set up by several parties, intimidated voters and seeded violence and anger among the public, who suffered from high unemployment and poverty. Meanwhile, elitists in influential positions, alarmed by the rise of anti-governmental parties, fought amongst themselves and exploited the emergency authority provided in the Weimar Constitution to rule undemocratically by presidential decree.
After a succession of unsuccessful cabinets, on January 29, 1933, President von Hindenburg, seeing little alternative and pushed by advisors, appointed Adolf Hitler Chancellor of Germany.
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Third Reich (1933–1945)
Main article: Nazi Germany
The Reichstag fire was a pivotal event in the establishment of Nazi Germany.
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The Reichstag fire was a pivotal event in the establishment of Nazi Germany.
On 27 February, the Reichstag was set on fire. Basic rights were abrogated under an emergency decree. An Enabling Act gave Hitler's government full legislative power. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based on the rule of democratic law, a policy that Hitler had outlined in his biography 'Mein Kampf.' The new regime made Germany a one-party state by outlawing all oppositional parties and repressing the different-minded parts of the public with the party's own organisations SA and SS, as well as the newly founded state security police Gestapo.
Industry was closely regulated with quotas and requirements in order to shift the economy towards a war production base. Massive public work projects and extensive deficit spending by the state helped to significantly lower the high unemployment rate. This and large welfare programmes are said to be the main factors that kept support of the public even late in the war.
Main article: The Holocaust
The Third Reich regime enacted governmental policies directly subjugating many parts of society: Jews, homosexuals, Roma, the disabled amongst others, labelling them as sub-humans. Consequently, these groups were discriminated against, jailed, killed, forced to move into ghettos, and stripped of their jobs and possessions. This eventually lead during WWII to a systematic extermination performed on an industrial scale, which was carried out in ghettos, concentration camps, extermination camps and massacres. According to the best current estimates, Nazi Germany murdered about 11 million people in the Holocaust, including nearly 6 million Jews.
In 1936, German troops entered the demilitarised Rhineland in an attempt to rebuild national self-esteem. Emboldened, Hitler followed from 1938 onwards a policy of expansionism to establish Greater Germany, that is, one German nation state, starting with the forced unification with Austria (called "Anschluss") and the annexation of the Sudetes region in Bohemia from Czechoslovakia. The British Prime Minister realised that his policies of appeasement towards Germany were being taken advantage of. To avoid a two-front war, Hitler concluded the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union.
Main article: World War II
German soldiers supposedly destroying a Polish border checkpoint. The picture was staged a few days after the outbreak of the war for use in propaganda.
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German soldiers supposedly destroying a Polish border checkpoint. The picture was staged a few days after the outbreak of the war for use in propaganda.
In