Science, Technology, Society and Environment Education
Science, Technology, Society and Environment (STSE) Education, originates from the Science Technology and Society (STS) movement in science education. This is an outlook on science education that emphasizes the teaching of scientific and technological developments in their cultural, economic, social ad political contexts. In this view of science education, students are encouraged to engage in issues pertaining to the impact of science on everyday life and make responsible decisions about how to address such issues (Solomon, 1993 and Aikenhead, 1994).
Historical context
STS is rooted in the postmodernist view of science (Fensham 1985; Pedretti 1997 and Aikenhead, 2003). This sees science as a human endeavour, embedded in the social, economic and political contexts in which scientific developments occur, rather than as set of theories, facts or observable outcomes (Solomon, 1993 and Bingle & Gaskell,1994). This article provides information about the evolution of STSE, along with the theoretical and pedagogical implications of including STSE perspectives in science education.Science Technology and Society (STS)
The STS movement has a long history in science education reform, and embraces a wide range of theories about the interface between science, technology and society (Solomon and Aikenhead, 1994; Pedretti 1997). Over the last twenty years, the work of Peter Fensham, the noted Australian science educator, is considered to have heavily contributed to reforms in science education. Fensham's efforts included giving greater prominence to STS in the school science curriculum (Aikenhead, 2003). The key aim behind these efforts was to ensure the development of a broad-based science curriculum, embedded in the socio-political and cultural contexts in which it was formulated. From Fensham's point of view, this meant that students would engage with issues concerning the impact of science and technology on everyday life from different viewspoints. They would also understand the relevance of scientific discoveries, rather than just concentrate on learning scientific facts and theories that seemed distant from their realities (Fensham, 1985 & 1988).
However, although the wheels of change in science education had been set in motion during the late 1970s, it was not until the 1980s that STS perspectives began to gain a serious footing in science curricula, in largely Western contexts (Gaskell, 1982). This occured at a time when issues such as, animal testing, environmental pollution and the growing impact of technological innovation on social infrastructure, were beginning to raise ethical, moral, economic and political dilemmas (Fensham, 1988 and Osborne, 2000). There were also concerns among communities of researchers, educators and governments pertaining to the general public's lack of understanding about the interface between science and society (Bodmer, 1985; Durant et. al. 1989 and Millar 1996). In addition, alarmed by the poor state of scientific literacy among school students, science educators began to grapple with the quandary of how to prepare students to be informed and active citizens, as well as the scientists, medics and engineers of the future (e.g. Osborne, 2000 and Aikenhead, 2003). Hence, STS advocates called for reforms in science education that would equip students to understand scientific developments in their cultural, economic, political and social contexts. This was considered important in making science accessible and meaningful to all students and, most significantly, engaging them in real world issues (Fensham, 1985; Solomon, 1993; Aikenhead, 1994 and Hodson 1998).
Goals of STS
The key goals of STS focus on:
An interdisciplinary approach to science education, where there is a seamless integration of economic, ethical, social and political aspects of scientific and technological developments in the science curriculum.
Engaging students in examining a variety of real world issues and grounding scientific knowledge in such realities. In today's world such issues might include the impact on society of: global warming, genetic engineering, animal testing, deforestation practices, nuclear testing and environmental legislations, such as the EU Waste Legislation or the Kyoto Protocol.
Enabling students to formulate a critical understanding of the interface between science, society and technology.
Developing students’ capacities and confidence to make informed decisions and take responsible action, to address issues arising from the impact of science on their daily lives.
Scope & Emphasis
Over the last two decades, STS curricula have taken a variety of forms. These emphasize a particular aspect of STS according to the socio-political environment in which they are formulated, as well as the particular views of curriculum developers on STS education and what is considered valid knowledge in a science curriculum (Solomon & Aikenhead 1994 and Aikenhead, 2003). For example, in Canada and Israel, STS goals directed towards understanding environmental issues were given greater emphasis. Hence, the addition of “E” to STS, producing STSE and STES respectively. Whereas in Belgium, goals focusing on ethics were given greater prominence in STS education, and resulted in the publication of the journal: Science Technologies Ethique Societé, (Aikenhead, 2003). However, for the most part, STS curricula are bound by an overarching curriculum framework. This reflects the three curriculum content areas for STS education described by Hodson (1998):
Learning Science and Technology: acquiring and developing conceptual and theoretical knowledge in science and technology, and gaining a familiarity with a range of technologies.
Learning About Science and Technology: developing an understanding of the nature and methods of science and technology, an awareness of the complex interactions among science, technology, society and environment, and a sensitivity to the personal, social and ethical implications of particular technologies.
Doing Science and Technology: engaging in and developing expertise in scientific inquiry and problem solving; developing confidence and competence in tackling a wide range of “real world” technological tasks.
STSE Education
As mentioned before, STSE is a form of STS education, but places greater emphasis on the environmental consequences of scientific and technological developments. In STSE curricula, scientific developments are explored from a variety of perspectives, including economic, environmental, ethical, moral, social and political (Kumar and Chubin, 2000 & Pedretti, 2005). Therefore, there is no one single definition for STSE education. At best, it can be loosely defined as a movement that attempts to bring about an understanding of the interface between science, society, technology and the environment. A key goal of STSE is to help students realize the significance of scientific developments in their daily lives and foster a voice of active citizenship (Pedretti & Forbes, 2000).
A Way of Improving Scientific Literacy
Over the last two decades, STSE education has taken a prominent position in the science curricula of different parts of the world, such as Australia, Europe, the UK and USA (Kumar & Chubin, 2000). In Canada, the inclusion of STSE perspectives in science education has largely come about as a consequence of the Common Framework of science learning outcomes, Pan Canadian Protocol for collaboration on School Curriculum (1997):[1]. This document highlights a need to develop scientific literacy in conjunction with understanding the interrelationships between science, technology and environment. According to Osborne (2000) & Hodson (2003), scientific literacy can be perceived in four different ways:
Cultural: Developing the capacity to read about and understand issues pertaining to science and technology in the media.
Utilitarian: Having the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential for a career as scientist, engineer or technician.
Democratic: Broadening knowledge and understanding of science to include the interface between science,technology and society.
Economic: Formulating knowledge and skills that are essential to the economic growth and effective competition within the global market place.
Rationale and Goals
In the context of STSE education, the goals of teaching and learning are largely directed towards engendering cultural and democratic notions of scientific literacy. Here, advocates of STSE education argue that in order to broaden students understanding of science, and better prepare them for active and responsible citizenship in the future, the scope of science education needs to go beyond learning about scientific theories, facts and technical skills. Therefore, the fundamental aim of STSE education is to equip students to understand and situate scientific and technological developments in their cultural, environmental, economic, political and social contexts (Solomon & Aikenhead, 1994; Bingle & Gaskell, 1994; Pedretti 1997 & 2005). For example, rather than learning about the facts and theories of weather patterns, students can explore them in the context of issues such as global warming. They can also debate the environmental, social, enconomic and political consequences of relevant legislations, such as the Kyoto Protocol. This is thought to provide a richer, meaningful and relevant canvas against which scientific theories and phenomena relating to weather patterns can be explored (Pedretti et. al. 2005).
In essence, STSE education aims to develop the following skills and perspectives (Aikenhead, 1994; Pedretti, 1996; Alsop & Hicks, 2001):
Social responsibility
Critical thinking and decision making skills
The ability to formulate sound ethical and moral decisions about issues arising from the impact of science on our daily lives
Knowledge, skills and confidence, to express opinions and take responsible action to address real world issues in science
Curriculum Content
Since STSE education has multiple facets, there are a variety of ways in which it can be approached in the classroom. This offers teachers a degree of flexibility, not only in terms of incorporating STSE perspectives into their science teaching, but integrating other curricular areas such as history, geography, social studies and language arts (Richardson & Blades, 2001). The table below summarizes the different approaches to STSE education described in the literature (Ziman, 1994 & Pedretti, 2005):
Summary Table 1: Curriculum Content
Approach Description Example
Historical A way of humanizing science. This approach examines the history of science through concrete examples, and is viewed as way of demonstrating the fallibility of science and scientists. Learning about inventions or scientific theories through the lives and worlds of famous scientist. Students can research their areas of interest and present them through various activities: e.g. drama-role play, debates or documentaries. Through this kind of exploration, students examine the values, beliefs and attitudes that influenced the work of scientists, their outlook on the world, and how their work has impacted our present circumstances and understanding of science today.
Philosophical Helps students formulate an understanding of the different outlooks on the nature of science, and how differing viewpoints on the nature and validity of scientific knowledge influence the work of scientists. Thus, demonstrating how society directs and reacts to scientific innovation. Using historical narratives or stories of scientific discoveries to concretely examine philosophical questions and views about science. For example, “The Double Helix” by James D. Watson is an account of the discovery of DNA. This historical narrative can be used to explore questions such as: “What is science? What kind of research was done to make this discovery? How did this scientific development influence our lives? Can science help us understand everything about our world?” Such an exploration embeds philosophical debates, pertaining to the nature of science, in their social and historical context. Thus making this kind of scientific inquiry concrete, meaningful and applicable to students’ realities.
Issues-Based This is the most widely applied approach to STSE education. It is directed towards formulating an understanding of the science behind issues along with the consequences to society and the environment. A multi-faceted approach to examining issues highlights the complexities of real-life debates. Students also become aware of the various motives influencing decisions made to address environmental issues. Real life events within the community, at the national or international level can be examined from political, economic, ethical and social perspectives through presentations, debates, role-play, documentaries and narratives. Real life events might include: the impact of environmental legislations, industrial accidents and the influence of particular scientific or technological innovations on society and the environment.
Opportunities and Challenges of STSE Education
Although advocates of STSE education keenly emphasize the merits of using this approach in science education, they also recognize the inherent difficulties that accompany its implementation. The opportunities and challenges of STSE education have been articulated by Hughes (2000) and Pedretti & Forbes, (2000), and are located at five different levels, as described below:
Values & Beliefs: STSE education, by nature of its goals, may challenge the values and beliefs of students, teachers, as well as conventional, culturally entrenched, views on scientific and technological developments. In many ways, this provides students with opportunities to engage with, and deeply examine the impact of scientific development on their lives from a critical and informed perspective. This not only helps to develop students' analytical and problem solving capacities, but also the ability to make informed choices in their everyday lives. Therefore, to enable students to formulate their own thoughts, independently explore other opinions and have the confidence to voice their personal viewpoints, teachers need to provide a balanced view of the issues being explored as they plan and implement STSE education lessons. They also need to cultivate safe, non-judgemental classroom environments, and must also be careful not to impose their own values and beliefs on students.
Knowledge & Understanding: The interdisciplinary nature of STSE education requires teachers to research and gather information from a variety of sources. At the same time, they need to develop a sound understanding of issues from various disciplines including: philosophy, history, geography, social studies, politics, economics, environment and science. This is so that students’ knowledge base can be appropriately scaffolded to enable them to effectively engage in discussions, debates and decision-making processes. However, most science teachers are specialized in a particular field of science. In addition, lack of time and resources may effect how deeply teachers and students can examine issues from multiple perspectives. Nevertheless, a multi-disciplinary approach to science education enables students to gain a more rounded perspective on the dilemmas, as well as the opportunities, that science presents in our daily lives.
Pedagogic Approach: Depending on teacher’s experience and comfort-level, a variety of pedagogic approaches, based on constructivism, can be used to make STSE education come alive in the classroom. As illustrated in the table below, the pedagogies used in STSE classrooms need to take students through different levels of understanding to develop their abilities and confidence to critically examine issues and take responsible action. Here, teachers are often faced with the challenge of transforming classroom pactices from task orientated approaches to those focussing on developing students' understanding and transfering agency for learning to students (Hughes, 2000). The table below is a compilation of pedagogic approaches for STSE education described in the literature (e.g. Hodson, 1998; Pedretti & Forbes 2000; Richardson & Blades, 2001):
Summary Table 2: Classroom Practice
Level Description Examples of Pedagogies
1 Appreciating the societal impact of scientific and technological change and recognizing that, to some extent,science and technology are culturally determined. Students work in groups to research information on various aspects of an event or innovation to illustrate its impact on society e.g. biotechnology, nuclear testing. Students can use role-play, concept mapping, posters, gallery exhibitions, presentations or documentaries to display research findings and express their own viewpoints.
2 Recognizing that decisions about scientific and technological development are taken in pursuit of particular interests. Weighing out the pros and cons of scientific and technological developments and their links with wealth and power. Debates or Town Hall style meetings, role-play interviews, case-studies, seminars, multi-media or documentary style presentations, can be used to present the political, social, scientific and economic factors that led to decisions about the impact of a particular scientific or technological development.
3 Developing one’s views and establishing personal value positions on the effect of a scientific or technological development. Students can present their opinions on issues through: presentations, debates, group discussions, poster presentations and writing. Through such activities, students can also be encouraged to express their hopes, concerns and decisions as informed citizens.
4 Preparing for taking action. Having examined the complexity of the development, students explore and plan ways of addressing the issues. This is a fundamental aspect of STSE education and could involve: letter writing campaigns, writing a letter to the editor of a newspaper, developing a Webpage, presenting debates or holding meetings for the local community, developing personal action plans.
Time & Resources: The multi-faceted approach of STSE education requires teachers to move much beyond using conventional curriculum materials, and explore other resources in different curricular areas. This includes: social geography, history, social studies and politics. Collecting such resources, developing one’s own background knowledge and integrating other curricular areas for successful and effective STSE lesson planning, require time and effort on behalf of the teacher.
Assessment & Evaluation: The broad, inquiry based approach to STSE education requires tools that assess students understanding of issues and the development of skills (e.g. problem solving, analysis, communication, presentation), rather than their decisions or opinions. Hence, STSE education calls for the use of qualitative rather than quantitative assessment methods. It is also difficult to develop assessment or evaluation criteria for such a personalized, objective, view of science. Here, teachers need to make students clearly aware that it is their efforts and skill development that are being assessed, rather than opinions. Examples of assessment tools might include: quizzes, questionnaires, journal writing, development of portfolios, observations and one-on-one exit interviews.
External links and resources for STSE education
Websites
Procedural Education - This site provides useful guidelines, resources and lesson plans for STSE education.
Science - A useful website for background information when using the historical approach to STSE. The website contains information about on scientists, their achievements and research interests.
Orange County STS Network - A useful website for information on science and technology issues that could be explored in middle and high school curricula.
Science Sites - A site for teachers and students containing resources for exploring scientific and technological issues.
Panda - A sister site of the World Wildlife Fund, containing resources for students and teachers on environmental issues.
Canadian Museum of Nature - The Canadian Museum of Nature site provides curriculum based resources and lesson plans that can be adapted for STSE education.
Samples of Science Curricula
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada
The Councils of Ministers of Education, Canada, website is a useful resource for understanding the goals and position of STSE education in Canadian Curricula.
UK Science Curriculum
USA Science Curriculum Standards
Australian Science Curriculum
Books
These are examples of books available for background information on STS/STSE education, teaching practices in science and issues that may be explored in STS/STSE lessons.
Aslop S., Bencze L., Pedretti E. (eds), (2005). Analysing Exemplary Science Teaching. Theoretical lenses and a spectrum of possibilities for practice, Open University Press, Mc Graw-Hill Education
Gailbraith D. (1997). Analyzing Issues: science, technology, & society. Toronto: Trifolium Books. Inc.
Homer-Dixon, T. (2001). The Ingenuity Gap: Can We Solve the Problems of the Future? (pub.) Vintage Canada.