The First World War, also known as The Great War, The War to End All Wars, and World War I (abbreviated WWI) was a global military conflict that took place between 1914 and 1918. It was a total war which left millions dead and shaped the modern world.
The Allied Powers, led by France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later also Italy and the United States, defeated the Central Powers, led by Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire.
Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a “No man's land”) running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than nine million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and millions more civilians suffered; more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities.[1]
The war caused the disintegration of four empires: the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian. Germany lost its overseas empire, and states such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were created, or recreated, as was the case with Poland.
Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century’s nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II 21 years later.
Causes
On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, in Sarajevo. Princip was a member of Young Bosnia, a group whose aims included the unification of the South Slavs and independence from Austria-Hungary (see also: the Black Hand). The assassination in Sarajevo set into motion a series of fast-moving events that escalated into a full-scale war. However, the distal causes of the conflict are multiple and complex. Historians and political scientists have grappled with them for nearly a century without reaching a consensus on what definitively could be said to have caused the war.
Sole responsibility of Germany and Austria?
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, often referred to as the War Guilt Clause, indicts Germany and Austria-Hungary as the sole instigators of WWI. Austria attacked Serbia on July 29, 1914 and Germany invaded Belgium on August 3.[2] Germany and Austria-Hungary are cited as responsible for the war by this document. German academics such as Fritz Fischer, Imanuel Geiss, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Wolfgang Mommsen and V.R. Berghahn have all promoted this thesis in the post-World War II period. Fischer contended that Germany wanted to control most of Europe or, at the very least, unite it economically through Germany. However, as he points out, diplomatic efforts to do so had often centered around Anglo-Germanic cooperation, not war.
Plans, distrust and mobilization
Closely related is the thesis adopted by many political scientists that the war plans of Germany, France and Russia automatically escalated the conflict. Fritz Fischer and his followers have emphasized the inherently aggressive nature of Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, which outlined German strategy if at war with both France and Russia. Conflict on two fronts meant that Germany had to eliminate one opponent quickly before taking on the other, relying on a strict timetable. Germany’s strategy called for a strong right flank on the attack on Belgium, and to conquer and crush French mobilizations to cripple the French army.
After the attack, the German army would then be rushed to the eastern front through railroads and quickly destroy the slowly-mobilizing military of Russia.
However, things did not end up as planned and early mistakes would cost Germany the war. France’s well defended border with Germany meant that an attack through Belgian (and possibly Dutch) territory was a necessity, creating a number of unexpected problems.
In a greater context, France’s own Plan XVII called for an offensive thrust into Germany’s industrial Ruhr Valley, crippling Germany’s ability to wage war.
Russia’s revised Plan XIX implied a mobilization of its armies against both Austria-Hungary and Germany.
All three created an atmosphere where generals and planning staffs were anxious to take the initiative and seize decisive victories. Elaborate mobilization plans with precise timetables had been prepared. Once the mobilization orders were issued, it was understood by both generals and statesmen alike that there was little or no possibility of turning back or a key advantage would be sacrificed. Furthermore, the problem of communications in 1914 should not be underestimated; all nations still used telegraphy and ambassadors as the main form of communication, which resulted in delays from hours to even days.
Militarism and autocracy
President of the United States Woodrow Wilson and other observers blamed the war on militarism.[3] The idea was that aristocrats and military elites had too much control over Germany, Russia and Austria, and the war was a consequence of their desire for military power and disdain for democracy. This was a theme that figured prominently in anti-German propaganda, which cast Kaiser Wilhelm II and Prussian military tradition in a negative light. Consequently, supporters of this theory called for the abdication of such rulers, the end of the aristocratic system and the end of militarism—all of which justified American entry into the war once Czarist Russia dropped out of the Allied camp.
Wilson hoped the League of Nations and universal disarmament would secure a lasting peace. He also acknowledged variations of militarism that, in his opinion, existed within the British and French political systems.
Economic imperialism
By 1903 Germany planned a rail link to the Persian Gulf through Ottoman territories that would have expanded German trade with the Middle East. The railroad reflected the peaceful economic rivalries of the era, and was not intended as a prelude to war. However Lenin asserted that the worldwide system of imperialism was responsible for the war. In this he drew upon the economic theories of Karl Marx and English economist John A. Hobson, who had earlier predicted the outcome of economic imperialism, or unlimited competition for expanding markets, would lead to a global military conflict. [4] This argument proved persuasive in the immediate wake of the war and assisted in the rise of Marxism and Communism. Lenin argued that large banking interests in the various capitalist-imperialist powers had pulled the strings in the various governments and led them into the war. [5]
Nationalism and romanticism
The civilian leaders of the European powers found themselves facing a wave of nationalist zeal that had been building across Europe for years, as memories of war faded or were convoluted into a romantic fantasy that resonated in the public conscience. Frantic diplomatic efforts to mediate the Austrian-Serbian quarrel simply became irrelevant, as public and elite opinion commonly demanded war to uphold national honor. The patriotic enthusiasm, unity and ultimate euphoria that took hold during the Spirit of 1914 was full of that very optimism regarding the postwar future. Also, the Socialist-Democratic movement had begun to exert pressure on aristocrats throughout Europe, who optimistically hoped that victory would reunite their countries via the consolidation of their domestic hegemony. However, Lord Kitchener and Erich Ludendorff were among those who predicted that modern, industrialized warfare would be a lengthy excursion. Others, such as Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, were concerned by the potential social consequences of a war.
International bond and financial markets entered severe crises in late July and early August; this reflected worry about the financial consequences of war. Nevertheless, spurred on by propaganda and nationalist fervor, many eagerly joined the ranks in search of adventure.
See also: Recruitment to the British Army during WW I
Culmination of European history
A localized war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was considered inevitable due to Austria-Hungary’s deteriorating world position and the Pan-Slavic separatist movement in the Balkans. The expansion of such ethnic sentiments coincided with the growth of Serbia and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, as the latter had formerly held sway over much of the region. Imperial Russia also supported the Pan-Slavic movement, motivated by ethnic loyalties, dissatisfaction with Austria (dating back to the Crimean War) and a century-old dream of a warm water port.[6] For Germany, their location in the center of Europe led to the decision for an active defense, culminating in the Schlieffen Plan.[7]
See also: Powder keg of Europe
July crisis and declarations of war
After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary waited for 3 weeks before deciding on a course of action, because most soldiers were on leave to help gather the harvest.[citation needed]
On July 23, assured by unconditional support of the Germans should war break out, the empire sent the July Ultimatum to Serbia, which demanded, among other things, that Austrian agents would be allowed to take part in the investigation of the murder, and that Serbia would take responsibility for it.
Emboldened by the promise of Russian support, the Serbian government accepted all the terms, except those relating to the participation of the Austrian agents in the inquiry, which it saw as a violation of its sovereignty. Breaking diplomatic relations, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia on July 28 and proceeded to bombard Belgrade on July 29. On July 30, Austria-Hungary and Russia both ordered general mobilization of their armies.
The Germans, having pledged their support to Austria-Hungary, sent Russia an ultimatum on July 31 to stop mobilization within 12 hours. On August 1, with the ultimatum expired, the German ambassador to Russia formally declared war.
On August 2, Germany occupied Luxembourg, as a preliminary step to the invasion of Belgium and the Schlieffen Plan (which was rapidly going awry, as the Germans had not intended to be at war with a mobilized Russia this quickly).
The same day, yet another ultimatum was delivered to Belgium, requesting free passage for the German army on the way to France. The Belgians refused. At the very last moment, the Kaiser Wilhelm II asked Moltke, the German Chief of General Staff, to cancel the invasion of France in the hope this would keep Britain out of the war. Moltke, horrified by the prospect of the utter ruin of the Schlieffen Plan, refused on the grounds that it would be impossible to change the rail schedule—“once settled, it cannot be altered” [8]. The question of whether such a radical change in Germany’s plans would have indeed been possible was the subject of much dispute. When Moltke’s reply was revealed after the war to General von Staab, Germany’s Chief of the Railway Division, he saw it as an affront to the capabilities of his unit, and proceeded to write a book proving such a change was indeed possible[9].
On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium on August 4. This act violated Belgian neutrality, to which Germany; France; and Britain were all committed. The guarantee prompted Britain, which had been neutral, to declare war on Germany on August 4.
Matthias Erzberger, the Reichstag deputy, later testified that six months after the outbreak of war, Moltke admitted that attacking France first was a mistake and that “the larger part of our army ought first to have been sent to the East to smash the Russian steamroller” [10].
World War II (abbreviated WWII or WW2), or World War Two or the Second World War, was a worldwide conflict fought between the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers (see below). It began in 1939 in Europe, and extended into the Soviet Union and finally Asia in 1941. After huge air, land and sea battles spanning much of the globe, victory came to the Allies in 1945 as they defeated and occupied Germany, Japan, and Italy.
Overview
Participants
The war was fought between the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers. The main Allied countries were initially the United Kingdom, Canada and France. France surrendered in 1940, but the Free French remained an Ally. In 1941, the United States, the Soviet Union and China joined on the Allies' side (China had been at war with Japan since 1937). The principal Axis Powers were Germany and Japan. Italy was also part of the Axis until its surrender in 1943. Over 50 countries on every continent were involved at various times in the conflict and the winning side founded the United Nations in 1945. The war concluded with the Allied Powers defeating the Axis Powers and occupying their territory.
Europe
The war started in Europe when Adolf Hitler led Nazi-controlled Germany to invade Poland on 1 September 1939. Britain and France responded by declaring war on Germany. Shortly after this, the Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland, attempted an invasion of Finland in the Winter War, and seized the Baltic states. In 1940, Germany conquered France and most of Western Europe, but failed to subdue the United Kingdom. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, where massive battles went on continuously until the end of the war. The naval war on the North Atlantic was the failed attempt by German U-boats to stop the flow of munitions to Britain. It was defeated by convoys and systematic patrols, using sonar directed to U-boats by breaking the German naval code.
Pacific
In Asia, Japan had invaded China in 1937. The United States supported China, cut off Japan's oil supplies, and was in turn attacked by Japan on December 7 1941, in the attack on Pearl Harbor. After six months of sweeping successes, including victory in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese lost four front-line carriers, and were decisively defeated at the Battle of Midway. American submarines gradually cut off supply of oil and other key resources to Japan. After the close-fought Battle of Guadalcanal in 1942, massive American superiority in ships and planes led to victory in a series of great naval battles such as the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944, and invasions of key islands such as Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945. The Americans and Allies had over a million infantry poised to invade the home islands of Japan in late 1945.
Land War
Vast areas of Europe, eastern Asia and North Africa, as well as the oceans, became battlefields. The German Blitzkrieg rapidly overwhelmed Poland in 1939, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium and France in 1940, and Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941. However the blitzkrieg against the vast, and more populous Soviet Union with its larger industrial base got bogged down after early huge gains in 1941. The Soviets captured the German Sixth Army at the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43), decisively defeated a number of Panzer Divisions at the great tank Battle of Kursk in 1943, and broke the Siege of Leningrad. The Red Army pursued the retreating Wehrmacht all the way to Berlin, and won the street-by-street Battle of Berlin, as Hitler committed suicide in his underground bunker on 30 April 1945.
Air War - Western Front (Europe)
The air war in Europe started after a period known as the 'Phoney War'. The Luftwaffe attacked Britain as a prelude to a ground invasion. Britain had a lot fewer aircraft than Germany. However the RAF rebuffed the Luftwaffe for a sustained period of time in what is known as the Battle of Britain (1940). The resolve of the aircrew, groundcrew and the British public as well as tactics, and radar, provided for a solid defence. Eventually Adolf Hitler gave up his plans to invade Britain and to concentrate on other fronts.
The British and American air forces counter-attacked the Luftwaffe and began large-scale strategic bombing, eventually targeting major cities inside Germany. This was orchestrated by Air Chief Marshall Harris who became known as 'Bomber Harris'. Additionally Winston Churchill ordered "terror raids" intended to wipe out whole cities in one go, by incendiary devices causing firestorms, thus depriving German workers of their homes. Mass raids involving upwards of 500 to 1000 heavy bombers at a time were undertaken against airfields, industrial centers, submarine bases, rail-marshalling yards, oil depots and, in the latter stages of the war, launching sites for weapons such as the V-1 missile (nicknamed 'doodlebug'), the V-2 rocket and a jet-engined plane, the Messerschmitt Me 262. The Luftwaffe was overwhelmed and had only a few operational planes left by late 1944 on the Western Front. By 1945 all major German cities were burnt-out ruins.
Air war - Pacific
The Japanese, by late 1944, having lost most of their main battleships and aircraft carriers, were desperate and started using Kamikaze (divine wind) aircraft on suicide missions. Loaded with explosives, the pilots were sent to attack all types of craft, even hospital ships (normally covered by the Geneva Convention. The American strategic bombing campaign against Japan depended on development of the very long-range B-29 bomber, which by 1945 had destroyed Tokyo and most of Japan's larger cities with fire bombs. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of the war represent the only time that nuclear weapons have ever been used in warfare.
War deaths
Some 62 million people, or 2.5% of the world population, died in the war, though estimates vary greatly. The dead and missing among Allied uniformed personnel totaled about 14.2 million, including about 10 million from the USSR, 2.5 million from China, 400,000 from the British Commonwealth, 400,000 from the U.S., 400,000 from Poland, 300,000 from Yugoslavia, 250,000 from France, 25,000 from Czechoslovakia. The Axis military lost about 8.5 million including 5.5 million from Germany, 2.0 million from Japan, 400,000 from Italy, 300,000 from Romania and 300,000 from Hungary . [1]
About 49 million deaths were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust), massacres, and aerial bombing. One estimate is that 12 million civilians died in the camps, 1.5 million by bombs, 7.0 in Europe from other causes, and 7.5 million in China from other causes. Allied civilian deaths came to about 38 million, including Soviet Union (20 million), China (10 million), Poland (4.1 million) and Yugoslavia (1.7 million). There were about 11 million civilian deaths on the Axis side, including Germany (6.5 million) Japan (2.0 Million), Italy (500,000) and Romania (500,000). The Holocaust refers to the organized state-sponsored murder of 6 million Jews, Gypsies, and other ethnic minorities carried out by Germany during the war. [2]
Aftermath
After World War II, Europe was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence, which set the stage for the Cold War. In Asia however, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization. China's civil war continued, resulting in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.
Causes
Commonly held general causes for WWII are the rise of nationalism, the rise of militarism, and the presence of unresolved territorial issues. Fascist movements emerged in Italy and Germany during the global economic instability of the 1920s, and consolidated power during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In Germany, resentment of the Treaty of Versailles — specifically article 231 (the "Guilt Clause") —, the belief in the Dolchstosslegende, and the onset of the Great Depression fueled the rise to power of the militarist National Socialist German Workers Party (the Nazi party) of which Adolf Hitler was the leader. Meanwhile, the Treaty's provisions were laxly enforced from fear of another war. Closely related is the failure of the British and French policy of appeasement, which sought to avoid or postpone another war but actually encouraged Hitler to become bolder. The USSR's signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact freed Germany of fear of reprisal from the Soviet Union when Germany invaded Poland. The League of Nations, despite its efforts to prevent the war, relied on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions and was unable to prevent the start of The Second World War.
Japan in the 1930s was ruled by a militarist clique devoted to becoming a world power. Japan invaded China to bolster its meager stock of natural resources. The United States and Great Britain reacted by making loans to China, providing covert military assistance, and instituting increasingly broad embargoes of raw materials against Japan. These embargoes would have eventually forced Japan to give up its newly conquered possession in China because the Japanese would not have enough fuel to run their war machine. Japan was faced with the choice of withdrawing from China or going to war with the United States in order to conquer the oil resources of the Dutch East Indies. It chose the latter, and went ahead with plans for the Greater East Asia War in the Pacific.