China (simplified Chinese: 中国, Traditional Chinese: 中國, pinyin: Zhōngguó; listen (help·info)) is a geographical region in East Asia and Central Asia. With over one-fifth of the world's population, the majority of China exists today as a state known as the People's Republic of China, but it also refers to a long-standing civilization comprising successive states and cultures dating back more than 4,000 years.
With one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent imperial dynastic change. The country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North China Plain, and varied according to its changing fortunes to include multiple regions of East, Northeast, and Central Asia. (The term "China proper" is used by some observers and historians to describe the core territory historically home to the majority Han Chinese, as opposed to lands associated later with China such as what is now Xinjiang.) For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day.
By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and military influence declined relative to the growing regional power of Japan and the influence of Western powers. The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912; however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second Sino-Japanese War during which the Empire of Japan occupied large parts of China, and the Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces.
After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Nationalists to retreat and relocate the ROC government to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World War II. Since then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, several islands off the coast of Fujian province including Kinmen and the Matsu Islands, and some islands in the South China Sea.
Shanghai, China's largest city
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Shanghai, China's largest city
Mount Tai in Shandong province
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Mount Tai in Shandong province
Contents
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* 1 Terminology
o 1.1 "Zhongguo"--The Central Kingdom
o 1.2 "China"
o 1.3 "Cathay"
* 2 History
* 3 Chinese Pre-history
* 4 Political history
* 5 Territory
o 5.1 Historical overview
o 5.2 Historical political divisions
o 5.3 Geography and climate
* 6 Economy
* 7 Society
o 7.1 Demographics
o 7.2 Culture
o 7.3 Religion
o 7.4 Arts, scholarship, and literature
o 7.5 Science and technology
* 8 Miscellaneous topics
* 9 See also
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Terminology
Main article: Names of China
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"Zhongguo"--The Central Kingdom
Geography of China and geographic region labels
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Geography of China and geographic region labels
China is called zhong guo in Mandarin Chinese (Simplified: 中国, Traditional: 中國; also romanized as Jhongguo or Chung-kuo), which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom." The first character Zhong (中) means "middle" or "center" while guo (国 or 國) means "country" or "kingdom".
The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain cultural and political connotations both positive and negative, some ideological, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not called "Zhongguo". During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western Zhou Dynasty, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin. The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the axis mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing Dynasty, although being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its culture assimilated alien influences.
Sword of Gou Jian, King of the Yue Kingdom, Spring and Autumn Period, ca. 470 B.C.
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Sword of Gou Jian, King of the Yue Kingdom, Spring and Autumn Period, ca. 470 B.C.
Thus Zhongguo quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" or "country" in the modern sense) spread in a southerly direction, including the Yangtze River and Pearl River systems, and by the Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the island of Taiwan, over time, came to be dominated (to a greater or lesser extent) by, or officially ruled by, imperial China, and are often included as a part of Zhongguo, though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial, especially where Zhongguo means PRC.
During the Han Dynasty and before, Zhongguo had three distinctive meanings:
1. The area around the capital or imperial domain. The Book of Poetry explicitly gives this definition.
2. Territories under the direct authority of the "central" authorities. The Historical Records states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in Zhongguo."
3. The area now called the North China Plain. The Sanguo Zhi records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the kingdoms in areas of present-day Shanghai, southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term Zhongguo is synonymous with Hua (華) and Xia (夏), and distinct from southern peoples living around the Yangtze River Delta.
During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it with the Southern Dynasties, which they called the Yi (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei Lu (虜), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. The term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin.
The Republic of China, as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used Zhongguo as an entity existing theoretically to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control as well as those outside of it. Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren (中國人), or Zhongguo people. Their disparate histories are collectively the history of Zhongguo, while the overarching ethnicity that unites these different groups is known as "Zhonghua Minzu" (Chinese people).
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"China"
Xi'an, known as Chang'an in ancient times, was the imperial capital of 13 different historical dynasties (including the Han and Tang dynasties) in China.
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Xi'an, known as Chang'an in ancient times, was the imperial capital of 13 different historical dynasties (including the Han and Tang dynasties) in China.
English and many other languages use forms of the name China and the prefix Sino- or Sin-, which is believed to have derived from the name of the Qin dynasty that first unified the country, although this is still highly controversial. Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and often regarded as overly tyrannical, it unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor"; hence the subsequent Silk Road traders might have identified themselves by that name.
In any circumstance, the word China passed through many languages along the Silk Road before it finally reached Europe and England. The Western "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) was also used by Japanese from the nineteenth century, but is now obsolete and is regarded as an offensive term by the Chinese.
The term "China" can narrowly mean China proper or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity China; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow provincial boundaries. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, in economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of population in China.
In some contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "mainland China" (中國大陸,zhōngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan).
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"Cathay"
The other more historical and lyrical English term for China is "Cathay." Cathay is derived from the name of the Khitans (契丹) in northern China, founders of the Liao Dynasty. The Chinese were referred to as "Cathayans" in English texts before the 16th century and the term Cathay was still commonly used to refer to China, particularly northern China, until the mid-19th century. Today, Russians and many Central Asian states still call China as "Kitay" (Китай) or variations of this name. There is an airline called Cathay Pacific although many people do not know it refers to China.
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History
Main articles: History of China, History of the Republic of China (1912–1949; 1949–Present on Taiwan), History of People's Republic of China (1949–Present)
Bronze wine vessel of the Shang Dynasty (Yin), the first historical Chinese dynasty, 13th century B.C.
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Bronze wine vessel of the Shang Dynasty (Yin), the first historical Chinese dynasty, 13th century B.C.
China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayan Civilization, and Ancient Egypt. The Chinese script is still used today by the Chinese and Japanese, and to a lesser extent by Koreans and Vietnamese. This script is the only logographic script still used in the world.
The first dynasty according to Chinese sources was the Xia Dynasty, but its references have traditionally been believed to be legendary. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts.
However, the first reliable historical dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang He River from eastern China, dating from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. The Shang were in turn invaded from the west by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring and Autumn period, many strong independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou state as the Imperial centre. They were all unified under one emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state.
The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang.
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The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang.
This state, however, did not last for long, as its legalist approach to control soon led to widespread rebellion. After the fall of the authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 206 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period of disunion followed again. In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art, although change was very gradual and mitigated by Imperial powers. The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911.
Oftentimes regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. However, these restrictions proved ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture.
In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, with which it had been at war for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe in that respect. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. See Imperialism in Asia.
However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and American interference, but rather the consequence of a series of internal upheavals. Most prominent of these was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates upward of 30 million. Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. This second conflict was the Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci Xi, made public efforts to aid foreign forces in suppressing the uprising. In the end the Boxers were defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance.
At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's national Anthem.
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At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's national Anthem.
In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and the Republic of China was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War.
The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. The CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China.
Today, China's pre-CCP ruling government has become a fully governing body in Taiwan, which has official diplomatic relations with less than 30 countries. The majority of the international community recognize the "One China policy" which considers the PRC as the only legitimate government in China. In addition, the PRC disputes Taiwan's status as an independent country from the Mainland. However, in recent year, some of the people of Taiwan,led by Chen Shuibian have pushed for, but failed to recieve a separate political indentity from the Mainland.
The United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively.
The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. On the other hand, the ROC—while never formally renouncing its earlier claims or changing official maps that show its territory as including both the modern-day PRC and Tibet—has moved away from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself as Taiwan. The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of China, possible Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan.
See also: Timeline of Chinese history, Dynasties in Chinese history, History of Hong Kong, History of Macau, and History of Taiwan
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Chinese Pre-history
Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (hominin) known as Homo erectus. One particular cave in Zhoukoudian (near current-day Beijing) has fossilised evidence that current dating techniques put somewhere from 300,000 and 550,000 years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones in association to H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th century to 19th century in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in particular the Island of Java) and Malaysia. Originally it is thought that these early hominids first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene and that human evolution first took place in Africa expanding 7 million years. By 2 million years ago the first wave of migration from the species in association with H. erectus settled into various areas in the Old World.
Fully modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in Ethiopia or Southern Africa (ei. Homo sapiens idaltu). By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago modern human beings settled in all parts of the Old world (including the New World, Americas 25,000 to 11,000 BC). By less than 100,000 years ago all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction. It remains a controversial subject to whether fully modern humans evolved from separate H. erectus populations (known as "multiregional") as some evidence in ancient bones show a transitional change from H. erectus to H. sapiens having archaic features. However it is now more widely accepted that all modern humans genetically share a direct ancestor, a female nicknamed "Mitochondrial Eve" from Eastern Africa 150,000 years BC. This model is known as Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis.
The earliest evidence examples of fully modern humans in China come from Liujiang, China where a cranium dates 67,000 years BC. Another is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa being only 18,000 years old.
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Political history
Main articles: History of China, Politics of the Republic of China, Politics of the People's Republic of China, Political status of Taiwan
Before unification by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. The Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several warring states, each ruled by a king (王), duke (公), marquess (侯), or earl (伯). Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each state was ruled as an independent political entity. This is also the time of the beginnings of Confucian philosophy and that of many other philosophies that greatly influenced Chinese philosophy/political thought.
This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the emperor was set up, and a system of bureaucratic administration established. After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. The territory varied with several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty. However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and religious leader of China. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the prime minister. Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, eunuchs, or imperial relatives, often at the expense of a child hereditary emperor. This happened especially since the emperor often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to manipulation because his sources for information could manipulate that information causing him to make incorrect decisions, especially considering their age at becoming emperor often had no bottom limit, with rule passing hereditarily but also given "in trust" to another relative.
Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples),
Yuan Shikai (left) and Sun Yat-sen (right) with two different flags representing the early Republic.
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Yuan Shikai (left) and Sun Yat-sen (right) with two different flags representing the early Republic.
Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history. Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages.
On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire.
After Yuan's downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a state). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories.
Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek(left), Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill met at the Cairo Conference in 1943.
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Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek(left), Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill met at the Cairo Conference in 1943.
In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.
Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947 ROC constitution were never put into actual practice on the mainland.
By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of society. But rather than the usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with China in the long-run vs. formal independence issue. However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. more environmentally friendly) and Blues are generally regarded as more conservative.
Mao Zedong proclaims the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949.
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Mao Zedong proclaims the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949.
Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, the leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. From the beginning, the PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Party.
However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over many areas of society. Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, censorship of the press, websites and history, literature and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, a non-peace popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an end by the CPC.
The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened.
See also: Chinese nationalism, Propaganda in the People's Republic of China, Imperialism in Asia, Chinese sovereign, and Chinese law
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Territory
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Historical overview
Chinese cultural world consists of mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and countries extensively linked to Chinese culture, such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
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Chinese cultural world consists of mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and countries extensively linked to Chinese culture, such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
The Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Qin Shi Huangdi, was originally the region around the Yellow River. Since then, the territory has expanded upward in all directions, and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties.
Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or suzerainty-tributary, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international political theories.
The Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as China proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of the shoe with China proper south of it. In 1683 the Kingdom of Tungning established by Koxinga, which included Taiwan and the Pescadores, was conquered by the Qing Empire, originally as one prefecture, then two, and later a province. Taiwan was subsequently ceded to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895. At the end of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the island in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and the Republic of China took over. Since then, the de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between the NRA, the now democratic ROC and Taiwan independence supporters.
See also: Taiwan, Republic of China, and Tibet
Map of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
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Map of the People's Republic of China (PRC).
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Historical political divisions
Main articles: Political divisions of China and History of the political divisions of China
Historically, top-level political divisions of China have altered as the administration changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships (see below for examples).
Historically, most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also exhibited expansionism by engaging in incursions into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China cemented the incorporation of these territories into China. These territories are separated by borders that are vague at best, and do not correspond well to contemporary political divisions. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau; Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; and historic Tibet is conceived as occupying all of the Tibetan Plateau. China is also traditionally thought of as comprising Northern China (北方) and Southern China (南方), the geographic boundary between which north and south is largely generalized as Huai River (淮河) and Qinling Mountains (秦嶺).
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Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of China
Yangtse River gorge in Yunnan province
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Yangtse River gorge in Yunnan province
China is composed of a vast variety of highly different landscapes, with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (central-east), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific.
The precipitation in different regions of China
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The precipitation in different regions of China
Most of China's arable lands lie along the two major rivers, the Yangtze and the Huang He, and each are the centers around which are founded China's major ancient civilizations.
In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges.
To the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, with the Himalayas, containing the highest point Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus among more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. Due to a prolonged drought and perhaps poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. Dust blows all the way to southern China, Taiwan, and has even been measured on the West Coast of the United States.
The Giant Panda is an endangered species native to the bamboo forests of central and southern China.
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The Giant Panda is an endangered species native to the bamboo forests of central and southern China.
During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (within which lies Beijing) has a climate with winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (within which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate climate. The southern zone (within which lies Guangzhou and other southern provinces) has a generally subtropical climate.
The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux.
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Economy
This article is on the Chinese civilization. See Economy of the People's Republic of China, Economy of Hong Kong, Economy of Macau, and Economy of Taiwan for information on the economies of modern Chinese political entities.
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Society
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Demographics
Main articles: Ethnic groups in Chinese history and Nationalities of China
Main article: Demographics of China
A crowded Nanjing Road in Shanghai.
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A crowded Nanjing Road in Shanghai.
Over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group in China is the Han, which is a group so diverse in its culture and language that some conceive of it as a larger overarching group bringing together many smaller, distinct ethnic groups sharing common traits in language and culture. Throughout history, many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been Sinicized into the Han, causing its population to increase dramatically; at the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Many times in the past millennia many foreign groups have, in turn, shaped Han language and culture, for example the queue is a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced by the Manchurians on the Han populace. The term Zhonghua Minzu is sometimes used to describe a notion of a "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions.
The government of the People's Republic of China now officially recognizes a total of 56 ethnic groups, of which the largest is the Han Chinese. China's overall population is 1.3 billion. With the global human population currently estimated at about 6.8 billion, China is home to approximately 20%, or one-fifth of the world's population.
The lack of birth control and promotion of population growth during the rule of Mao Zedong resulted in a demographic explosion, culminating in over 1.2 billion people today. As a response to the problems this is causing, the government of the PRC has enacted a birth control policy, commonly known as the One-child policy.
The Han speak several mutually unintelligible tongues, classified by modern linguists as being separate languages, but regarded within the Chinese languages as "dialects" or "local languages" (topolects) within a single Chinese language (the word for "area languages" has an implication of dialect rather than a separate language, although on the basis of use, these topolects can be found to be separate and mutually unintelligible, and are so classified by many linguists). The various spoken varieties of Chinese share a common written standard, "Vernacular Chinese" or "baihua", which has been used since the early 20th Century and is based on Standard Mandarin, the standard spoken language, in grammar and vocabulary. In addition, another, more ancient written standard, Classical Chinese, was used for writing Chinese by the literati for thousands of years before the 20th Century. Classical Chinese is no longer the predominant form of written Chinese, though it continues to be a part of high school curricula and is hence intelligible to some degree to many Chinese people. Other than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants are usually not written; the exception is Standard Cantonese, which is sometimes written as Written Cantonese in informal contexts.
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Culture
Main article: Culture of China
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Religion
Main article: Religion in China
500 Buddha lohans in Shanghai's Longhua temple (first built during the Three Kingdoms era)
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500 Buddha lohans in Shanghai's Longhua temple (first built during the Three Kingdoms era)
The major religions of China are:
* Confucianism - exact numbers unknown [majority]
* Taoism and ancestor worship - exact numbers unknown [majority]
* Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [8 to 15%]
* Christianity - 2 to 4% (from Western sources; the Chinese official number is much smaller than 1%)
* Islam - 2%
* Falun Gong - exact numbers unknown (claimed not to be a "religion", though from a scholarly perspective is a spiritual practice. Claimed numbers of followers of the Falun Dafa are also regarded as unreliable.)
While the People's Republic of China is officially secular and atheist, it does allow personal religion or supervised religious organization. Taoism and Buddhism, along with an underlying Confucian morality, have been the dominant religions of Chinese society for nearly the past two millennia, and continue to be so in modern Chinese societies, particularly those not in direct PRC control. As personal religion is widely tolerated in the PRC today, there has been a strong resurrection of interest in Buddhism and Taoism within the PRC in the past decade. Among the younger, urban secular population in the PRC, Taoist spiritual ideas of Feng Shui have also become quite popular in recent years, spawning a large home decoration market in China.
In recent years, Falun Gong, has attracted great controversy after the government of the People's Republic of China labeled it a malicious cult[1] and began an attempt to eradicate it. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a cult or a religion. The Falun Gong says that it has approximately 70-100 million followers, which is higher than estimates by foreign independent groups, though exact numbers are unknown.
See also: Confucianism, Catholicism in China, Protestantism in China, Chinese folk religion, and Way of former Heaven Sects
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Arts, scholarship, and literature
Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty
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Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty
Chinese literature has a long and prolific continuous history, in part because of the development of printmaking during the Song Dynasty. Before that, manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were manually written by ink brush (previously scratching shells) and distributed. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on these works in both printed and written form. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant and more, from oracle bones to Qing edicts, are discovered each day.
For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to a meritocracy, though in practice this was possible only among those who were not female or too poor to afford test preparation, as doing well still required tutorship. Nevertheless it was a system distinct from the European system of blood nobility. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.
Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets have been, for the most part, highly respected, and played a key role in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities. (See List of Chinese authors, and List of Chinese language poets).
A Chinese stringed instrument qin (琴), often referred to in English as a "lute"
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A Chinese stringed instrument qin (琴), often referred to in English as a "lute"
The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng (箏), qin (琴), sheng (笙), xiao (簫), and erhu (二胡), that have later spread throughout East and Southeast Asia, particularly in Japan, Korea and Vietnam. The Chinese sheng is the basis for several Western free-reed instruments (harmonica, organ).
Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout the Chinese history, and were "simplified" in the mid-20th century on mainland China. Calligraphy is a major art-form in China, above that of painting and music. Because of its association with elite scholar-official bosses, it later on became commercialized, where works by famous artists became prized possessions.
The great variation and beauty in the Chinese landscape is often the inspiration for great works of Chinese art. See Chinese painting for more details.
Calligraphy, sushi, and bonsai are all millennia-old art that later spread to Japan and Korea.
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Science and technology
Long March 3A rocket launching
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Long March 3A rocket launching
Main article: Science and technology in China
In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:
* Compass
* Block Printmaking / Printing Technology
* Paper
* Asian abacus
* Gunpowder
* Crossbow
* Stirrup
* Lacquer
* Blast furnace (steel)
* Umbrella
* Whiskey (medicinal/surgical use)
* Rudder
* Dry dock
* Seismograph
* Silk
* Paper money and necessary monetary institutions
* Glider
* Hot air balloon
* Fireworks and solid-fuel rocket
* Parachute
* Petroleum well
* Clock
* Matches
* Fishing pole (hook)
* Chess
* Fans
* Porcelain (China)
* Toilet Paper
* Kite
* Bronze
* Wallpaper
* Wheelbarrow
Pascal triangle first drawn by the Chinese (above made in 1303)
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Pascal triangle first drawn by the Chinese (above made in 1303)
Other areas of technological study:
* The main applications of mathematics in traditional China were architecture and geography. Pi (π) was calculated by 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to the seventh digit. The decimal system was used in China as early as the 14th Century BC. "Pascal's" Triangle was discovered by mathematician Chia Hsien, Yang Hui, Zhu Shijie and Liu Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal was born.
* Studies in biology have been extensive, and historic records are consulted even today, such as pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants.
* Traditional medicine and surgery were highly advanced at various points in history, and in some fields are still seen as innovative. They continue to play a growing role in the international medical community, and have achieved recognition over the last few decades in the West as alternative and complementary therapies. An example is acupuncture, although it is somewhat controversial in some quarters. However, autopsy was unacceptable, because of the common belief that a corpse should not be violated, though nevertheless, there were several doctors who increased the understanding of internal anatomy by violating this autopsy taboo.
* Military innovations include the crossbow and the grid sight, crossbow stirrup, repeating crossbows, the trebuchet, poison gas (smoke from burning dried mustard), tear gas made from powdered lime, relief maps for battle planning, manned kites, fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, gunpowder grenades, proto-handguns, various gun-related ammunition types and the cannon. For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under Mao Zedong established an autocratic socialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, his successor Deng Xiaoping and other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by 2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
The Kingdom of Belgium (Dutch: Koninkrijk België; French: Royaume de Belgique; German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in northwest Europe bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg and France. Belgium has a population of over ten million people in an area of around 30,000 square kilometres (11,700 square miles). Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Romance Europe, it is both linguistically and culturally divided. Two major languages are spoken in Belgium: Dutch–sometimes unofficially called Flemish–is mainly spoken in Flanders to the north, while French in Wallonia in the south. The capital, Brussels, is officially bilingual, while the majority of its residents speak French, and an officially-recognised German-speaking minority is present in the east of the country. This linguistic diversity often leads to political conflict, and is reflected in Belgium's complex system of government and political history.
Belgium derives its name from the Belgae, a group of mostly Celtic tribes, and from the Roman province in northern Gaul, known as Gallia Belgica. Historically, Belgium has been a part of the Low Countries, which also include the Netherlands and Luxembourg and were covering a somewhat larger region than the current Benelux group of states. From the end of the Middle Ages until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous centre of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until independence in 1830, Belgium, called at that time the Southern Netherlands, was the site of many battles between the European powers, and has been dubbed "the cockpit of Europe."[1] More recently, Belgium was a founding member of the European Union, hosting its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organisations, such as NATO.
Contents
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* 1 History
* 2 Government and politics
* 3 Communities and regions
* 4 Geography and climate
* 5 Environment
* 6 Economy
* 7 Demographics
* 8 Culture
* 9 See also
* 10 External links
* 11 References
* 12 Notes
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History
Main article: History of Belgium
Over the past two millennia, the area that is now known as Belgium has seen significant demographic, political and cultural upheavals. The first well-documented population move was the conquest of the region by the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC, followed in the 5th century by the Germanic Franks. The Franks established the Merovingian kingdom, which became the Carolingian Empire in the 8th century. During the Middle Ages, the Low Countries were split into many small feudal states. Most of them were united in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries by the house of Burgundy as the Burgundian Netherlands. These states gained a degree of autonomy in the 15th century and were thereafter named the Seventeen Provinces.
The Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see Seventeen Provinces.
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The Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see Seventeen Provinces.
Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels
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Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels
The history of Belgium can be distinguished from that of the Low Countries from the 16th century. A civil war, the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), divided the Seventeen Provinces into the United Provinces in the north and the Southern Netherlands in the south. The southern provinces were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. Until independence, the Southern Netherlands were sought after by numerous French conquerors and were the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries—including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, such the Bishopric of Liège—were overrun by France, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the end of the French Empire in 1815.
The 1830 Belgian Revolution led to the establishment of an independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium under a provisional government. Since the installation of Leopold I as king in 1831, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. Between independence and World War II, the democratic system evolved from an oligarchy characterised by two main parties, the Catholics and the Liberals, to a universal suffrage system that has included a third party, the Belgian Labour Party, and a strong role for the trade unions. Originally, French, which was the adopted language of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was the official language. The country has since developed a bilingual Dutch-French system.
The Berlin Conference of 1885 agreed to hand over Congo to King Leopold II as his private possession, called the Congo Free State. In 1908, it was ceded to Belgium as a colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. Belgium's neutrality was violated in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan. The former German colonies Ruanda-Urundi—now called Rwanda and Burundi—were occupied by the Belgian Congo in 1916. They were mandated in 1924 to Belgium by the League of Nations. Belgium was again invaded by Germany in 1940 during the blitzkrieg offensive. The Belgian Congo gained its independence on 30 July 1960 during the Congo Crisis, and Ruanda-Urundi became independent in 1962.
After World War II, Belgium joined NATO and, together with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, formed the Benelux group of nations. Belgium was also one of the founding members of the European Economic Community. Belgium hosts the headquarters of NATO and a major part of the European Union's institutions and administrations, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and most of the sessions of the European Parliament. During the 20th century, and in particular since World War II, the history of Belgium has been increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main language communities. This period saw a rise in intercommunal tensions, and the unity of the Belgian state has come under scrutiny.[2] Through constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s, regionalisation of the unitary state had led to the establishment of a three-tiered system of federalism, linguistic-community and regional governments, a compromise designed to minimise linguistic tensions. Nowadays, these federal entities uphold more legislative power than the national bicameral parliament.
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Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Belgium
Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999
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Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999
Belgium is a constitutional popular monarchy and parliamentary democracy that evolved after World War II from a unitary state to a federation. The bicameral parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is a mix of directly elected senior politicians and representatives of the communities and regions; while the latter represents all Belgians over the age of eighteen in a proportional voting system. Belgium is one of the few countries that has compulsory voting, thus having one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.[3]
The federal government, formally nominated by the king, must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives. It is led by the Prime Minister. The numbers of Dutch- and French-speaking ministers are equal as prescribed by the Constitution.[4] The King or Queen is the head of state, though he has limited prerogatives. Actual power is vested in the Prime Minister and the different governments, who govern the country. The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Appeals is one level below the Court of Cassation, an institution based on the French Court of Cassation.
Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organised around the need to represent the main language communities. Since around 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties has split into distinct components that mainly represent the interests of these communities. The major parties in each community belong to three main political families: the right-wing Liberals, the centrist Christian Democrats, and the left-wing Social Democrats. Other important younger parties are the Green parties and, especially in Flanders, the nationalist and far-right parties. Politics is influenced by lobby groups, such as trade unions and business interests in the form of the Federation of Enterprises in Belgium.
Albert II, King of the Belgians
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Albert II, King of the Belgians
The current king, Albert II, succeeded King Baudouin in 1993. In 1999, Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from the VLD has led a six-party Liberal-Social Democrat-Greens coalition, often referred to as 'the rainbow government'. This was the first government without the Christian Democrats since 1958.[5] In the 2003 elections, Verhofstadt won a second term in office and has led a Liberal-Social Democrat coalition of four parties.[6] In recent years, there has also been a steady rise of the Flemish (far) right nationalist separatist party Vlaams Blok, meanwhile superseded by Vlaams Belang amidst allegations of racism promoted by the party. [7]
A significant achievement of the two successive Verhofstadt governments has been the achievement of a balanced budget; Belgium is one of the few member-states of the EU to have done so. This policy was applied by the successive governments during the 1990s under pressure from the European Council. The fall of the previous government was mainly due to the dioxin crisis,[8] a major food intoxication scandal in 1999 that led to the establishment of the Belgian Food Agency.[9] This event resulted in an atypically large representation by the Greens in parliament, and a greater emphasis on environmental politics during the first Verhofstadt government. One Green policy, for example, resulted in nuclear phase-out legislation, which has been modified by the current government. The absence of Christian Democrats from the ranks of the government has enabled Verhofstadt to tackle social issues from a more liberal point of view and to develop new legislation on the use of soft drugs, same-sex marriage and euthanasia. During the two most recent parliaments, the government has promoted active diplomacy in Africa,[10] opposed a military intervention during the Iraq disarmament crisis, and has passed legislation concerning war crimes. Both of Verhofstadt's terms have been marked by disputes between the Belgian communities. The major points of contention are the nocturnal air traffic routes at Brussels Airport and the status of the electoral district of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde.
See also: list of Belgian monarchs, Belgian federal parliament, Belgian federal government, list of Belgian Prime Ministers, and Political parties in Belgium
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Communities and regions
Main article: Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium
Belgium is divided into three communities and into three regions.
Flemish Community
(Dutch speaking)
French Community
German-speaking
Community
Flemish region
Walloon region
Brussels-Capital region
The country's constitution was revised on 14 July 1993 to create a unique federal state, based on three levels:
1. The federal government, based in Brussels.
2. The three language communities:
* the Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking) Community;
* the French (i.e., French-speaking) Community;
* the German-speaking Community.
3. The three regions (which differ from the language communities with respect to the German-speaking community and the Brussels region):
* the Flemish region;
* the Walloon Region; and
* the Brussels-Capital Region.
Conflicts between the bodies are resolved by the Court of Arbitration. The setup allows a compromise so distinctly different cultures can live together peacefully. poop poop poop poop
setup is the federal government which manages foreign affairs, development aid, defence, military, police, economic management, social welfare, social security transport, energy, telecommunications, and scientific research, limited competencies in education and culture, and the supervision of taxation by regional authorities. The federal government controls more than 90 per cent of all taxation. The community governments are responsible for the promotion of language, culture and education in mostly schools, libraries and theatres. The third tier is the Regional governments, who manage mostly land and property based issues such as housing, transportation etc. For example, the building permit for a school building in Brussels belonging to the public school system would be regulated by the regional government of Brussels. However, the school as an institution would fall under the regulations of the Flemish government if the primary language of teaching is Dutch, but under the French Community government if the primary language is French.
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Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of Belgium
Brussels, Antwerp (Antwerpen), Ghent (Gent), Charleroi, Liège, Bruges (Brugge) and Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000
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Brussels, Antwerp (Antwerpen), Ghent (Gent), Charleroi, Liège, Bruges (Brugge) and Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000
Belgium, with an area of 30 528 square kilometres (11,787 sq. mi), has three main geographical regions: the coastal plain in the north-west, the central plateau, and the Ardennes uplands in the south-east. The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by dikes or, further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. The second geographical region, the central plateau, lies further inland. This is a smooth, slowly rising area that has many fertile valleys and is irrigated by many waterways. Here one can also find rougher land, including caves and small gorges.
Landscape in the Hautes Fagnes, in the Ardennes
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Landscape in the Hautes Fagnes, in the Ardennes
The third geographical region, called the Ardennes, is more rugged than the first two. It is a thickly forested plateau, very rocky and not very good for farming, which extends into northern France. This is where much of Belgium's wildlife can be found. Belgium's highest point, the Signal de Botrange is located in this region at only 694 metres (2,277 ft).
The climate is maritime temperate, with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: Cfb; the average temperature is 3 °C (37°F) in January, and 18° C (64 °F) in July; the average precipitation is 65 millimetres (2.6 in) in January, and 78 millimetres (3.1 in) in July).[11]
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Environment
Main article: Environment of Belgium
According to various scientific sources[citation needed], certain environmental issues in Belgium are among the worst in the world. The reasons for this are:
* Belgium is a major transit country within the European Union (EU)
* Belgium's heavy industry is a major source of income, centred around chemicals and metal
* Belgium is located between countries that do a lot of polluting themselves (Germany's Ruhr area, France and the Netherlands)
* Belgium's government lacks decisive environmental policies
* A 2003 report [12] suggested that the water in Belgium's rivers was of the lowest quality in Europe, and bottom of the 122 countries studied.
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Economy
Main article: Economy of Belgium
Densely populated, Belgium is located at the heart of one of the world's most highly industrialised regions.
Steelmaking along the Meuse or Maas at Ougrée, near Liège.
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Steelmaking along the Meuse or Maas at Ougrée, near Liège.
Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 1800s. Liège and Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846–50). After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a fast expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a prolonged recession. The Belgian steel industry has since experienced serious decline. This has been responsible for inhibiting the economic development of Wallonia.[13] In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards to Flanders. Nowadays, industry is concentrated in the populous Flemish area in the north.
By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. Currently, although the government has recently succeeded in balancing its budget, public debt is nearly 100% of GDP.[13] In 2004, the real growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.7% [14] but is expected to fall to 1.3% in 2005.[15]
Belgium has a particularly open economy. It has developed an excellent transportation infrastructure of ports, canals, railways and highways to integrate its industry with that of its neighbours. Antwerp is the second-largest European port. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate the member economies. In 1999, Belgium adopted the euro, the single European currency, which replaced the Belgian franc in 2002. The Belgian economy is strongly oriented towards foreign trade, in particular of hig